Introduction to Biochemistry
Its Role in Biology and Medicine
What is Biochemistry?
"Bios" in Greek means life and biochemistry is the branch of science that deals with the study of the chemical basis of life so it may also be defined as the branch of science That deals with the study of the chemistry of living matter at a cellular and molecular level the term biochemistry was introduced by Carl Newberg in 1903.
Living matters are composed of various lifeless bio-molecules such as carbohydrates lipids, proteins peptides, amino acids, nucleic acids, and minerals, which contribute to the chemical bases of Life in a living body.
Other bio-organic molecules Like Vitamins either serve as coenzymes in various biochemical reactions or directly participate in physiological functions such as maintenance of blood calcium and phosphate levels, vision, blood coagulation, etc. Enzymes, hormones, and neurotransmitters play pivotal roles in regulating the metabolic and physiological functions of the living body.
In addition to bioorganic molecules minerals like calcium, phosphorus, fluoride, iron, sodium, potassium, zinc, iodine, etc. also have important structural as well as functional roles in the human body.
These bio-organic molecules and minerals not only maintain normal growth, function, and metabolism of the human body but these are also required to maintain optimal health.
Several deficiency diseases and disorders like scurry, rickets, osteomalacia, night blindness, pellagra, Pernicious anemia, Xerophthalmia, Barry Berry, etc. are well reported to occur due to deficiency of different fat- and water-soluble Vitamins. The role of natural antioxidants like Vitamin C Vitamin E and β-carotene has been suggested in preventing several chronic diseases like cancer, cataracts, inflammatory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, etc.
Biochemistry is not a Single Subject
Biophysical chemistry includes the understanding of several biochemical aspects of the human body such as chemical composition and mode of action of various buffers present in the body in different body fluids, acid-base balance, osmosis, PH and its maintenance, membrane equilibrium, mitochondrial electron transport chain, and oxidative phosphorylation, enzyme kinetics, bioenergetics, transport of ions across the cell membrane during rest as well as Action potential (muscles & nerve impulses).
Bioinorganic chemistry deals with the study of structural and functional aspects of minerals that are essentially required for growth function and metabolism; the most important example is the formation of deposition of hydroxy and fluorapatite salts of calcium, phosphorus, and Fluoride during the development of bone and teeth. It also includes the study of the role of ferrous and ferric forms of iron in the mitochondrial electron transport chain and iron transport and storage, the role of heme in oxygen transport, the role of calcium and blood coagulation, the chemistry of free radicals and antioxidants, etc.
Bio-organic chemistry is the main and most important part of biochemistry as most of the biomolecules in living organisms are organic compounds. All these molecules have specific structural features, and physical and chemical properties the study of chemistry of organic molecules of biochemical interest such as carbohydrates, proteins, peptides, amino acids, lipids, nucleic acids, vitamins, hormones, enzymes, coenzymes, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, etc. Hence it is important to understand their role in normal growth, function, metabolism, and development of the human body.
There are three main areas where biochemistry covers different aspects of living beings.
1. Physical chemistry (Biophysical chemistry)
2. Inorganic chemistry (Bioinorganic chemistry)
3. Organic chemistry (Bioorganic chemistry)
REMEMBER:
In pure organic chemistry, the study is limited to its chemistry only, however in biochemistry, the study includes the chemistry of bio-organic molecules as well as biochemical reactions, metabolic processes, and physiological functions associated with that particular biomolecule.
Branches of Biochemistry
2.Medical/clinical Biochemistry
There are several branches of biochemistry namely-
1. Human or animal biochemistry
2. Medical or clinical Biochemistry
3. Clinical & Applied Biochemistry
4. Plant Biochemistry
5. Industrial Biochemistry
6. Environmental Biochemistry
7. Agriculture Biochemistry
8. Nutrition Biochemistry etc.
Human biochemistry deals with the biochemical basis of life in the human/animal body. Along with the study of chemistry and the biological importance of various bio-organic molecules human biochemistry also studies the following areas: -
Cell structure and function: The study of the structure and function of different cell organelle and their role in various biochemical and physiological functions fall under this.
Biochemistry of bio-membranes Hormones neurotransmitters digestion and absorption respiration acid-base balance, water-electrolyte balance, urine formation, milk formation, biological oxidation, toxication and detoxification reaction, enzyme reactions and kinetics, cancer, free radicals, organ function tests, etc.
Biochemical composition of various human body floods, bones, and teeth.
Immune system and its function: the study of the structure and function of various types of immunoglobulins antigen-antibody reactions humoral and cellular immune responses autoimmune disorders vaccinations etc. fall under this.
Nutrition mineral metabolism and vitamins: it includes the study of a balanced diet its nutritional importance and composition nutritional importance of various nutrients BMR and its influencing factors disorders of malnutrition biochemical physiological functions, dietary requirements, dietary sources, and deficiency manifestation of minerals and vitamins.
Physiological functions include muscle contraction and relaxation, neurotransmitter and hormone release and their action, blood coagulation, visual cycle, regulation of blood phosphorus and calcium levels, nerve impulse transmission, etc.
Tissue metabolism includes the study of catabolism and animalism of proteins lipids carbohydrates nucleic acids, etc. The study of inbound errors of metabolism also comes under this study.
Molecular biology and genetics: The study of the structure organization of DNA, DNA replication, transcription, translation, regulation of gene expression, mutation, etc. falls under this study.
1. Human biochemistry
This branch of Biochemistry deals with the study of the normal and healthy human body including normal biochemistry like metabolic physiological and biochemical processes. However normal biochemistry is altered in several diseases and clinical conditions such as jaundice, diabetes mellitus, hypo and hyperthyroidism, hypo and hyperparathyroidism, gout, dental fluoresces, scurvy, rickets, Acidosis and alkalosis, liver diseases, lysosomal storage diseases, kidney dysfunction, anemia, phenol ketonuria, etc. and many more.
These diseases and conditions with altered biochemistry result from physiological pathological, nutritional, or genetic defects in the human body and are studied in medical biochemistry.
Medical biochemistry deals with the study of deranged biochemistry of the human body in disease conditions, the study helps to understand the biochemical basis of many diseases and their diagnosis prognosis, and treatment.
In clinical biochemistry, several tests are done that help in the diagnosis and prognosis of physiological, pathological nutritional, and genetic diseases. These tests are namely
Essay of serum diagnostic enzymes in Serum
Estimation of concentration of various normal and abnormal metabolites in blood and other body fluids
Assay of hormones in the blood
Quantitative and qualitative examination of various abnormal constituents of urine
Estimation of the concentration of electrolytes in the blood
Various organ function tests
Clinical biochemistry is one of the most important branches of pathology. Some of the common biochemical parameters and their significance in the diagnosis and prognosis of various diseases are as follows: -
Raised levels of glucose and ketone bodies in blood and the presence of glucose and ketone bodies in urine are usually due to the defect in the blood sugar regulatory mechanism, and the condition helps in the diagnosis and prognosis of diabetes mellitus. Glycosylated hemoglobin is also raised in Diabetes mellitus.
Serum amylase and lipase activities are raised in pathological conditions of salivary glands and pancreas.
Assay of SGOTSGPT serum alkaline phosphatase serum Albumin and bilirubin help in the diagnosis and prognosis of several hepatic disorders
The presence of either abnormal metabolites or an excess quantity of normal metabolites in urine blood or any other body fluid helps in the diagnosis and prognosis of disorders of inborn errors of metabolism. Increased levels of uric acid in blood and urine are seen in gout.
Serum LDH, GOT, and CPK are raised in Myocardial infarction and have diagnostic significance in heart attack. Essay of cardiac muscle proteins Like “troponin T and troponin I” in the blood is also an important earliest marker of myocardial infection.
An increase in serum levels of cholesterol triglycerides and lipoproteins is observed in atherosclerosis, Familial hyperlipoproteinemia, hypercholesterolemia, fatty liver, etc.
Raised levels of serum uric acid and hyper-uricacidurea indicate gouty arthritis.
An increase in the plasma level of fluoride is seen in dental fluorosis and fluoride toxicity.
Raised levels of serum creatinine, blood urea, and BUN, the presence of protein in the urine, and decreased renal clearance indicate kidney dysfunction.
Assay of T3, T4, TSH, growth hormones, insulin, and several other hormones help in the diagnosis of several endocrine disorders such as hypothyroidism, thyrotoxicosis, Diabetes mellitus Dwarfism, Diabetes insipidus, Cushing’s disease, etc.
Assay of Sedum Vitamin B-12 helps in the diagnosis of CNS disorders in pernicious anemia.
Assays of Serum Alkaline phosphatase help in the detection of osteoblastic bone diseases and obstructive jaundice.
The presence of Bence Jones protein in urine indicates multiple myeloma.
Raise levels of serum β-glucuronidase and prostate acid phosphatase Indicate carcinoma of the urinary bladder and prostate, respectively.
Quantitative estimation of sodium ions, potassium ions, calcium ions, and magnesium ions in the blood is useful in the diagnosis and prognosis of disorders of skeletal muscles, heart, and bones.
The presence of free hemoglobin that is occult blood in urine indicates hemoglobinemia resulting from intravascular hemolysis due to snake venom poisoning, spider bite, sickle cell disease, glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, mismatched blood transfusion, etc.
Assay of tumor markers, e.g. carcinoembryonic antigen, Prostate-specific antigen, AFP(α-foetoprotein), etc. in blood helps in the diagnosis of various types of cancers. Plasma levels of AFP C and A-19-9 Increase in carcinoma of the liver and pancreas respectively.
Clinical and applied biochemistry is a branch of biochemistry that focuses on the chemical and biochemical processes in the human body, with direct application to diagnosing, treating, and managing diseases. It involves the study of biomarkers, enzymes, hormones, and other molecules found in body fluids like blood, urine, and tissue samples to understand how these components reflect health or illness.
Clinically, this branch is crucial because it forms the foundation of many diagnostic tests used in hospitals and laboratories. Blood tests to measure glucose levels in diabetes, liver enzymes for liver function, or lipid profiles for cardiovascular risk are all based on principles of clinical biochemistry. This field allows healthcare professionals to detect imbalances or abnormalities in the body’s biochemistry, leading to early diagnosis and better treatment strategies.
Applied biochemistry, on the other hand, takes this knowledge and uses it to develop therapeutic interventions, new drugs, or even personalized treatments based on a patient’s biochemical profile. For example, clinical biochemists might help design targeted therapies for cancer or metabolic disorders by understanding the underlying biochemical dysfunction.
In short, clinical and applied biochemistry is at the heart of modern healthcare. It supports everything from routine health checkups to advanced therapies, helping to guide treatment, monitor diseases, and improve patient outcomes.
3.Clinical & applied Biochemistry
The application of biochemistry, molecular biology, and microbiology for the commercial production of substances of biomedical importance e.g.
production of human insulin
growth hormone
vaccines
antibiotics
antitoxins
vitamins
drugs
beverages
cheese
bio-organic acids
single cell protein
5. Industrial Biochemistry/Biotechnology
Both animals and plants differ remarkably in various biochemical reactions/metabolic pathways, physiological functions & biomolecules present in the plants. Many processes such as photosynthesis, nitrogen fixation, photorespiration, synthesis & storage of starch, proteins & fats, ripening of fruits, plant hormones, synthesis of alkaloids, tannic acid, phenolics, etc. occur only in plants. and these are studies under plant biochemistry.
Plant biochemistry is the branch of science that delves into the chemical processes that occur within plants. It focuses on understanding how plants synthesize, store, and utilize essential molecules like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and secondary metabolites. This field covers everything from photosynthesis and nutrient absorption to plant hormones and defense mechanisms against environmental stresses. By studying these processes, plant biochemistry helps us comprehend how plants grow, adapt, and survive in different conditions.
Clinically, plant biochemistry is significant because many of the compounds produced by plants have direct health benefits for humans. Medicinal plants, for example, produce bioactive compounds like alkaloids, flavonoids, and terpenes, which are used in the development of pharmaceuticals, herbal remedies, and dietary supplements. Understanding plant biochemistry allows for the discovery of new plant-based drugs that can treat a range of health conditions, from inflammation to cancer.
Additionally, plant biochemistry plays a role in improving the nutritional content of crops. Through biofortification, scientists can enhance levels of vitamins, minerals, and other beneficial compounds in food plants, helping to address nutritional deficiencies on a global scale.
In short, plant biochemistry is vital for advancing medicine, improving nutrition, and ensuring the health of both ecosystems and humans. It bridges the natural processes in plants with real-world applications that benefit human health and well-being.
6.Environmental Biochemistry
7.Agriculture Biochemistry
Importance of Biochemistry in Medicine
Biochemistry and medicine are intimately related as several biochemical studies have illuminated many aspects of human health and diseases.
For medical and dental students, the study of Biochemistry is essential not only to understand the metabolism, function, and growth of the normal human body but also to understand the aberrant biochemistry of the human body in various diseases and clinical conditions. Biochemistry has made valuable contributions in many fields of medical and dental sizes like physiology, pathology, pharmacology, medicine, microbiology, immunology, nutrition, forensic medicine, toxicology, etc.
Hence a sound knowledge of quiet mystery and Other related basic disciplines like molecular biology, immunology, and nutrition is essential in understanding the various areas of medical, dental, and related health sciences.
Environmental biochemistry is a fascinating field that studies how chemicals in the environment—whether natural or man-made—affect biological systems. It looks at the interaction between organisms and environmental factors such as pollutants, toxins, and even nutrients in soil and water. This branch of biochemistry is concerned with understanding how these elements are processed in living organisms and how they impact both individual health and ecosystems at large.
Clinically, environmental biochemistry is vital because it helps us recognize the effects of environmental exposures on human health. For instance, it looks into how toxic substances like heavy metals, pesticides, or industrial chemicals enter the body and affect processes at the cellular level. This knowledge is critical for diagnosing and treating conditions caused by environmental toxins, such as certain cancers, respiratory diseases, or developmental disorders.
Moreover, it plays an essential role in public health by identifying environmental risk factors for disease and enabling the development of regulations to reduce harmful exposures. On a personal level, doctors might use insights from environmental biochemistry to understand the source of a patient’s health issues and suggest lifestyle changes or treatments to minimize further exposure.
In short, environmental biochemistry provides a scientific foundation for addressing the growing health challenges posed by environmental pollutants and helps create strategies to protect both individuals and communities.
Agricultural biochemistry is the branch of science that explores the chemical processes within plants, animals, and soil that are critical to agriculture. It studies how nutrients, fertilizers, pesticides, and environmental factors affect plant and animal growth, crop yields, and soil health. By understanding the molecular mechanisms behind these interactions, agricultural biochemistry aims to improve farming techniques, enhance food production, and ensure sustainability in agriculture.
Clinically, agricultural biochemistry is important because it directly impacts human health through the food chain. For instance, the study of nutrient content in crops can lead to the development of more nutritious foods, helping combat malnutrition and vitamin deficiencies. It also plays a role in reducing harmful pesticide residues in food, ensuring safer consumption. Furthermore, agricultural biochemistry contributes to animal health by developing better feed formulations, improving livestock health, and preventing diseases that can impact both animals and humans.
This branch is also crucial in addressing global challenges like food security and sustainable farming practices. With increasing environmental pressures, agricultural biochemistry helps design crops that are more resistant to drought, disease, or pests, ensuring stable food supplies.
In summary, agricultural biochemistry bridges the gap between farming practices and human health, ensuring that the food we produce is both safe and nourishing while promoting sustainable agricultural systems.
Nutritional biochemistry is the branch of science that explores how the foods we eat interact with our bodies at the molecular level. It dives into the chemical processes involved in the digestion, absorption, metabolism, and utilization of nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals. By understanding these interactions, nutritional biochemistry helps us grasp how nutrients affect our overall health, growth, and energy production.
From a clinical perspective, this field is essential in identifying how imbalances in nutrient intake can lead to health issues, such as deficiencies, metabolic disorders, or chronic diseases like diabetes and cardiovascular disease. It also plays a crucial role in personalized nutrition, where treatments or diets are tailored to an individual's specific genetic and metabolic makeup. For example, a clinical nutritionist may use biochemical data to recommend dietary changes that help manage conditions like obesity, malnutrition, or inflammatory diseases.
In essence, nutritional biochemistry bridges the gap between diet and health, ensuring that what we consume translates into optimal physiological functioning. Its clinical importance lies in its ability to guide preventive health measures, improve patient care, and support the development of therapeutic dietary interventions.
8.Nutrition Biochemistry
4.Plant Biochemistry
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